The Fertility Gap: Barriers to Fertility Around the World

Women of all social, economic and religious backgrounds around the world tend to have less children than women of past generations, and less children than they would like to have.  The barriers to fertility are multifold, and include economic, cultural, environmental, cultural, political and ideological factors. The consequences of the fertility gap are grief and distress for individuals and couples, and population aging, a shrinking labor force, and lower levels of economic growth for societies.

Recommended Reading:

Demography and fertility studies

1. Beaujouan, Éva & Berghammer, Caroline. The Gap Between Lifetime Fertility Intentions and Completed Fertility in Europe and the United States (2019).
2. Stone, Lyman. The Global Fertility Gap (2019).
3. Kearney, Melissa & Levine, Philip. Why Is Fertility So Low in High-Income Countries? (2026).
4. Lutz, Wolfgang, Skirbekk, Vegard & Testa, Maria Rita. The Low-Fertility Trap Hypothesis (2007).
5. Piano, Clara & Stone, Lyman. The Fertility Gap and Economic Freedom (2023).

Population, demography and development

1. Rosling, Hans, Rosling, Ola & Rosling, Anna. Factfulness (2018).
2. Ridley, Matt. The Rational Optimist (2020).
3. Holcombe, Randall G. Capitalism Creates Sustainable Progress (2024).
4. Jones, Randall S. Addressing Demographic Headwinds in Japan (2024).
5. United Nations. Population and Development: Programme of Action, Cairo Conference (1994).

Marriage, family, culture

1. DeRose, Laurie & Stone, Lyman. More Work, Fewer Babies (2021).
2. Shreffler, Karina & Johnson, David. Fertility Intentions, Career Considerations and Subsequent Births (2012).
3. Wang, Wendy & Wilcox, Brad. Women Want More Children Than They’re Having (2024).
4. Caplan, Bryan. Selfish Reasons to Have More Kids (2012).

Religion and fertility

1. Kohm, Lynne Marie. A Christian Response to the Global Fertility Crisis (2024).
2. Stone, Lyman. America’s Growing Religious–Secular Fertility Divide (2022).
3. Perry, Samuel & Schleifer, Cyrus. Are the Faithful Becoming Less Fruitful? (2019).

Environmentalism and Anti-natalism

1. Ehrlich, Paul & Ehrlich, Anne. The Population Bomb (1968).
2. Powdthavee, Nattavudh et al. Are Environmental Concerns Deterring People from Having Children? (2024).
3. Lewis-Kraus, Gideon. The End of Children (2025).